Class 9 · Social ScienceNCERT 2026 Revised Syllabus
Chapter 4: Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisation (0908CH04)
Understanding Society India and Beyond
Traces the evolution of early humans from hunter-gatherers to settled farming communities, and the rise of the first civilisations through archaeology and river-valley cultures.
Chapter code: 0908ch04 · Book: Understanding Society India and Beyond · Class 9 Social Science
Find complete NCERT solutions for Class 9 Social Science, Understanding Society India and Beyond Chapter 4. Every question has a clear, step-by-step answer for chapter code 0908CH04.
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The Big Questions(4 questions)
1
How did humans live on Earth before the beginning of civilisation?
Ans.
Early humans lived as hunter-gatherers, using stone tools, living in caves or open camps, and gradually developing fire use, art, and social organisation before permanent settlements.
2
How did humans communicate before writing was invented?
Ans.
Before writing, humans communicated through speech, gestures, symbolic cave paintings, and engraved bones, shells, and beads that conveyed ideas and beliefs.
3
How is archaeology helpful in understanding our past?
Ans.
Archaeology uncovers tools, fossils, pottery, and structures left by ancient people, helping historians reconstruct how early humans lived, worked, and evolved.
4
How did early civilisations interact with each other?
Ans.
Early civilisations interacted through trade in goods like beads, copper, and timber, as seen between the Harappans and Mesopotamians, exchanging resources and ideas.
The Invention of Writing (Introduction)(1 questions)
1
Activity — LET'S EXPLORE: Observe the Harappan seal — why has the script not been deciphered, and what efforts have been made?
Ans.
The script remains undeciphered because inscriptions are very short, there is no bilingual text (like the Rosetta Stone) to compare it with, and its underlying language is unknown. Scholars have tried computer-based pattern analysis and comparisons with other ancient scripts, but no breakthrough has been achieved yet.
Why Should We Study Early Human History?(1 questions)
1
Activity — THINK ABOUT IT: Why do you think early humans left Africa to migrate to other regions?
Ans.
Early humans likely migrated in search of food, a better climate, and new hunting grounds, and to escape environmental changes or population pressure in their original habitat.
Who Were Our Human Ancestors?(1 questions)
1
Activity — LET'S EXPLORE: Do the skulls (Fig. 4.6) show changes in shape/features? Is there a gradual straightening of the face?
Ans.
Yes. The skulls show a gradual increase in brain-case size, a flatter face, and a more prominent forehead moving from Homo habilis to Homo sapiens, reflecting brain and facial evolution.
Periods in Early Human History(1 questions)
1
Activity — THINK ABOUT IT: Why is the Neolithic shift to farming called a 'revolution' rather than a simple change?
Ans.
It is called a revolution because it fundamentally transformed human life — from mobile hunting-gathering to settled farming, permanent villages, and food surplus — within a relatively short span of time.
The Neolithic Revolution(1 questions)
1
Activity — THINK ABOUT IT: Identify domesticated animals, habitats, and objects in Fig. 4.14. Are any still used today?
Ans.
Domesticated animals include cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs; habitats included mud-brick houses, while objects included pottery vessels. Cattle-rearing and pottery-making are still widely practised today.
Sindhu–Sarasvati Civilisation(1 questions)
1
Activity — THINK ABOUT IT: How would long-distance trade have been affected without a standard system of weights?
Ans.
Without standard weights, traders could not measure goods fairly, leading to disputes, unequal exchange, and loss of trust, which would have seriously hindered long-distance trade.
Bronze Age Civilisations Outside India(1 questions)
1
Activity — THINK ABOUT IT: Why were rivers important in the growth of early civilisations?
Ans.
Rivers provided fertile soil, water for irrigation and drinking, and routes for transport and trade, allowing farming surplus and settled communities that grew into civilisations.
Mesopotamian Civilisation(4 questions)
1
Activity — LET'S EXPLORE: Which countries constitute West Asia in present times?
Ans.
Present-day West Asia includes countries such as Iraq, Iran, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates, among others.
2
Activity — LET'S EXPLORE: Similarities between temples in India and Sumerian temples as centres of activity.
Ans.
Like Sumerian ziggurats, Indian temples also served as centres of economic, social, and cultural life, managing land and wealth and hosting festivals alongside religious worship.
3
Activity — LET US RECALL: Does our understanding of a civilisation change when its script is deciphered compared to when it is not?
Ans.
Yes. Deciphered scripts (like cuneiform) reveal names, events, beliefs, and daily life in detail, while undeciphered scripts (like the Harappan script) limit understanding mainly to material remains and inference.
4
Activity — LET'S EXPLORE: The Epic of Gilgamesh is one of the earliest written stories — find other such stories.
Ans.
The textbook notes an old version of ‘Sindbad the Sailor’ preserved in an Egyptian papyrus collection, along with animal fables, tales of ghosts and miracles, romances, and the oldest known form of ‘Cinderella’. Students may also find other early written stories from different civilisations.
Egyptian Civilisation(4 questions)
1
Activity — THINK ABOUT IT: Why a scale with a heart on one side and a feather on the other (Fig. 4.29)? What does this tell us about early Egyptian beliefs?
Ans.
This depicts the Egyptian belief in the 'weighing of the heart' after death — the heart was weighed against the feather of truth (Ma'at) to judge whether the soul deserved the afterlife.
2
Activity — LET'S MAP: Locate the River Nile. Why is the northern part called Lower Egypt and the southern part Upper Egypt?
Ans.
The Nile flows from south to north into the Mediterranean Sea. Since the land near its source (south) lies at a higher elevation, it is called Upper Egypt, while the northern delta region, at a lower elevation, is called Lower Egypt.
3
Activity — LET'S EXPLORE: What were the social classes of early Egypt, their occupations, and daily routines (Fig. 4.32)?
Ans.
The classes were the Pharaoh (ruler), officials/nobles/priests (administration and worship), free landholders/artisans/merchants (farming and trade), and serfs/slaves (manual labour); each had very different daily routines, from ruling and worship to farming and hard physical work.
4
Activity — THINK ABOUT IT: What do the daily-use images (Fig. 4.33) tell us about Egyptian fashion, and which classes used them?
Ans.
Sample answer: The finely painted pottery and woven sandals suggest use by wealthier classes or officials, since such crafted, decorative items indicate greater resources than the plain, functional tools used by labourers.
The Chinese Civilisation(3 questions)
1
Activity — LET'S EXPLORE: Find more examples of Chinese characters that resemble the objects or ideas they represent.
Ans.
Sample answer: The character for 'mountain' (山) shows three peaks resembling a mountain range, and the character for 'sun' (日) is a rounded square resembling the sun's disc.
2
Activity — THINK ABOUT IT: What other reasons could there have been for building the Great Wall of China?
Ans.
Besides defence against nomadic raids, the wall may have helped control and tax trade routes, monitor travellers, mark territorial boundaries, and project the power of the ruling dynasty.
3
Activity — LET'S RECALL: Recall the Silk Route from Grade 7 — how was India connected with it, and with Buddhism's spread to China?
Ans.
The Silk Route connected China to India and beyond, carrying silk, spices, and other goods. Buddhism spread from India to China along this route through monks and traders in the early centuries CE.
Questions and Activities (End of Chapter)(13 questions)
1
Do you think life became easier or more challenging after humans started farming? Give two reasons.
Ans.
Farming made life both easier and harder — it ensured a stable food supply and permanent homes, but also brought harder physical labour and dependence on unpredictable weather.
2
The environment offers opportunities and challenges — explain with reference to early farming communities and river-valley civilisations.
Ans.
Rivers offered fertile soil and water for farming, enabling civilisations like the Harappans and Egyptians to flourish, but floods, droughts, and unpredictable water levels also posed serious challenges to these communities.
3
Why do historians divide early human history into Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age? What does this classification tell us about human progress?
Ans.
Historians use this classification based on the materials used for tools, showing how human technology and skills progressively advanced from simple stone tools to more effective metal tools over time.
4
Hard
Imagine you are a Neolithic farmer. Describe one day of your life. What challenges would you face that a hunter-gatherer would not?
Ans.
Sample: A Neolithic farmer's day involves ploughing fields, tending animals, and storing grain — facing challenges like crop failure, pests, and land disputes, unlike hunter-gatherers who simply moved on to new areas.
5
Hard
Imagine the Harappan script gets deciphered tomorrow. What new types of information might historians learn?
Ans.
Historians could learn Harappan names, religious beliefs, trade records, laws, and daily events, transforming our understanding of their society much like deciphered cuneiform did for Mesopotamia.
6
Prepare a table with three columns — Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic — showing tools, settlements, art, and subsistence.
Ans.
| Feature | Palaeolithic | Mesolithic | Neolithic |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tools | Handaxes, cleavers, scrapers | Microliths, bone points | Polished stone tools, pottery |
| Settlements | Caves, open camps | Temporary camps near rivers/lakes | Permanent villages |
| Art | Cave paintings, early beads | Rock-shelter paintings (e.g., Bhimbetka) | Painted pottery, ornaments |
| Subsistence | Hunting and gathering | Hunting, fishing, gathering wild grains | Farming and animal domestication |
7
Hard
"Bronze Age civilisations developed independently but shared common features." Examine this statement.
Ans.
The Harappan, Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Chinese civilisations arose independently in river valleys, yet all shared features like urban centres, writing systems, metallurgy, trade, and social hierarchy.
8
Discuss both the advantages and disadvantages of settling near rivers.
Ans.
Rivers provided fertile soil, water, and transport routes that supported agriculture and trade, but they also brought risks of floods, water-borne diseases, and destruction of settlements during overflow.
9
Hard
Find out more about the Code of Hammurabi. Why was it important? Was it fair to all sections of society?
Ans.
The Code of Hammurabi was one of the earliest written law codes, establishing rules for justice and conduct across the empire. However, it was not entirely fair, as punishments varied by social class, generally favouring nobles over commoners and slaves.
10
Hard
If you had to choose one major innovation from early civilisations that changed the world permanently, what would it be and why?
Ans.
Sample answer: Writing was the most transformative innovation, as it allowed accurate record-keeping and the transmission of knowledge across generations, forming the foundation for laws, literature, and administration.
11
Hard
Compare the social hierarchy and daily life of people in Egyptian civilisation with those in Mesopotamia or China. What similarities and differences do you notice?
Ans.
All three had a ruling class (pharaoh/king) at the top, followed by priests/nobles, then farmers/artisans, and slaves/serfs at the bottom. However, the Egyptian pharaoh held god-like status, while Mesopotamian and Chinese rulers, though powerful, were seen as chosen by or answerable to divine will.
12
Activity: Using maps, locate the major rivers and civilisations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, and the Sindhu–Sarasvati Valley. Mark the trade links between them.
Ans.
Practical task: Mark the Euphrates–Tigris (Mesopotamia), Nile (Egypt), Huang He/Yangtze (China), and Indus–Ghaggar–Sarasvati (India) river systems on a world map, and draw trade links such as the Harappan–Mesopotamian sea route via the Persian Gulf (through Dilmun and Magan).
13
Activity: Choose one early civilisation and prepare a mini-scrapbook or presentation on their innovations in tools, writing, art, and architecture.
Ans.
Practical task: Select Egypt, Mesopotamia, or China, and compile pictures with brief descriptions of key innovations — for example, pyramids and hieroglyphics for Egypt, cuneiform and ziggurats for Mesopotamia, or the Great Wall and silk for China — explaining their historical significance.